In the middle of the 1950s, many thought the world had only two political options: Western-style capitalism, or Stalinist bureaucratic "communism". When the working class of Hungary launched a workers' revolution against the Stalinist dictatorship, they proved both sides wrong.
The workers' movement in Italy reached new heights when a wave of factory occupations swept the industrial centres–only to be swiftly defeated by the political disorganisation of the revolutionary left. The legacy of this movement's defeat helped Gramsci develop his theory of revolution.
The revolutionary wave of 1848 began with a joyous struggle for democracy. But it ended with violent struggles between workers and capitalists, liberals and socialists, revolutionaries and reformers. The experience was a decisive influence on the development of Marx's theory of revolution.
